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object permanence: an understanding that objects that continue to exist, despite being hidden from sight or awareness. An important cognitive concept that, according to
Piaget, does not develop until infants are eight months old or more.
objectivity:
conducting an
investigation and collecting data without the process being influenced
by personal interpretation or
bias.
observation:
used to describe a
situation where an observer records behaviour demonstrated by a
participant. An observation does not involve manipulation of an
independent variable, but simply allows the observation of
relationships between variables as they occur. Observation includes a
variety of differing types of observation including
naturalistic
observation,
participant and
non-participant observation.
observational learning:
a process of
socialisation that takes place as a result of
an individual observing and
imitating the behaviour of
another person who serves as a model, as opposed to through
direct experience. See
modelling.
observational learning:
a process of
socialisation that takes place as a result of
an individual observing and
imitating the behaviour of
another person who serves as a model, as opposed to through
direct experience. See
modelling.
observer bias:
the
tendency for observers to record data that may be
biased as
a result of personal expectations (e.g. awareness of the
hypothesis) or motives, rather than recording what
actually happens.
obsessions:
irrational
thoughts and images that are normally unfounded, but over
which a person may appear to have little control over, and
which may ultimately affect the normal functioning of a
person.
obsessive-compulsive
disorder:
an
disorder characterised by obsessions (uncontrollable,
persistent and
irrational thoughts or wishes) and
compulsions
(repetitive ritualistic acts).
occipital lobe:
the
rearmost region of the each
cerebral hemisphere, located
behind the
parietal lobe and above the
temporal lobes.
Crucial for the processing of visual information.
occupational psychology:
branch of
psychology that focuses on human beings in the
workplace, including job satisfaction, leadership, selection
and recruitment of staff and the effect of different working
conditions upon performance.
Oedipal conflict:
in
Freud’s theory of development, the major conflict
associated with the
phallic stage which challenges the
developing
ego; named after the Greek story of Oedipus, who
unknowingly killed his father and married his mother.
Oedipus complex:
a
term devised by
Freud,
to describe the intense sexual love that a young boy
develops toward his mother, which is followed by
jealousy
and rivalry with his father to seek the attention and
affection of the mother. The son subsequently demonstrates
castration anxiety, fearing that his father might castrate
him for his incestuous feelings towards his mother, and so
represses his feelings and identifies with his father.
offender profiling:
a
technique used based on an examination of the crime scene,
including how the crime was committed, and a consideration
of previous offender profiles, to build and predict a
detailed description (including
socio-demographic
characteristics) of a criminal offender.
one-tailed hypothesis:
see
directional
hypothesis.
ontogeny:
the
evolution (i.e. the origin and development) of an individual
organism, from conception to death.
open-ended questions:
questions that do not contain fixed, pre-determined
responses, that allow a respondent to answer relatively
freely.
operant conditioning:
a form
of learning that is determined by consequences that either
reinforce or punish particular behaviours, that can increase
or decrease the probability of the behaviour.
operation:
the act of
something being carried out.
Operation Headstart:
an enrichment intervention programme used in the US in the
1960s for preschool children, aimed at changing the effects
of social disadvantage.
operational
definition:
a
definition of a
variable or condition on the basis of the
exact operation or procedure that determines its existence
and makes it usable.
Variables can be identified by factors
that are manipulated or measured.
opportunity sample:
sampling
technique not based on random selection or
probability; the researcher selects those who are
convenient to him or her as respondents.
oppositional defiant
disorder: a disruptive pattern of behavior of
children and adolescents that is characterised by defiant,
disobedient, and hostile behaviours directed toward adults
in positions of authority.
optic nerve:
a group
of fibres, comprised of the
axons of ganglion cells, that
leave the eyeball, carrying information from the eye towards
the
brain.
optimal mismatch theory:
based on
Piagets
theory of intellectual development, aims to
accelerate learning by ‘mismatching’ a child’s current level of competence with a
set of problems slightly more complex than this level. If
there is a correct, optimal?difference between what they
can do, and what is being asked of them, children then
experience a
cognitive conflict and seek to find
solutions through their own actions.
oral stage:
the first stage in
Freud’s
theory of development, from birth
to about 15 months, when the primary source of gratification
is stimulation of the mouth and lips.
order effects:
differences in
participants performance that occurs as a
result of
participants experiencing different conditions in
a specific order. Subsequently, learning and practice
effects can arise (whereby
participants adapt and improve on
later measurements) or fatigue effects (resulting in a
decline in performance on later measures).
ordinal data:
data
that can be rank-ordered, but intervals between ranks are
not necessarily equal.
ordinate:
when
plotting data on a graph, the ordinate refers to information
on the vertical or y axis of the graph. The
dependent variable
is plotted on this axis.
organ of corti:
a receptive
organ in the inner ear, whereby sound waves are changed into
nerve impulses.
organic disorder:
a disorder with a known
physiological cause. For instance,
schizophrenia has been linked to enlarged
brain
ventricles and excessive
dopamine.
Origin of Species:
the
book in which
Darwin proposed his theory of evolution in
1859.
outcome study:
a technique for exploring how successful a
therapeutic
intervention has been. For instance, an experimental group
who has been given a drug may be compared to a control group
that received a
placebo.
out-group:
individuals who are not members of, and are not accepted by
the
in-group.
overcompensation:
a Freudian
defence mechanism, whereby an individual attempts to
offset weakness in an area of their lives by focusing on
another aspect of it.
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